Expert Biography

Teun Adrianus van Dijk (born May 7, 1943 in Naaldwijk, the Netherlands), is a scholar in the fields of text linguistics, discourse analysis and Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA).

With Walter Kintsch he contributed to the development of the psychology of text processing. Since the 1980s his work in CDA focused especially on the study of the discursive reproduction of racism by what he calls the 'symbolic elites' (politicians, journalists, scholars, writers), the study of news in the press, and on the theories of ideology, context and knowledge.

He founded six international journals: Poetics, Text (now called Text & Talk), Discourse & Society Discourse Studies, Discourse & Communicationand the internet journal in Spanish Discurso & Sociedad, of which he still edits the last four.

Teun A. van Dijk was a professor of discourse studies at the University of Amsterdam from 1968 until 2004, and since 1999 he has taught at the Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona. He has widely lectured internationally, especially in Latin America.

Selected bibliographyEdit

• Some aspects of text grammars. A Study in theoretical poetics and linguistics. The Hague: Mouton, 1972.
• Text and context. Explorations in the semantics and pragmatics of discourse. London: Longman, 1977.
• Macrostructures. An interdisciplinary study of global structures in discourse, interaction, and cognition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
• Studies in the pragmatics of discourse. The Hague/Berlin: Mouton, 1981.
• Prejudice in discourse. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1984.
• Communicating Racism. Ethnic Prejudice in Thought and Talk. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1987.
• News as Discourse. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1988.
• News Analysis. Case studies of international and national news in the press. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1988.
• Racism and the Press. London: Routledge, 1991.
• Elite discourse and racism. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE, 1993.
• Ideology: A Multidisciplinary Approach. London: Sage, 1998.
• Racism and Discourse in Spain and Latin America. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2005.
• Discourse and Context. A sociocognitive approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
• Society and Discourse. How social contexts control text and talk.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
• Discourse and Power. Contributions to Critical Discourse Studies.Houndsmills: Palgrave MacMillan, 2008.

• Discourse and Knowledge. A sociocognitive approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, in press
• Strategies of Discourse Comprehension. with Walter Kintsch. New York: Academic Press, 1983.

Edited books

• Pragmatics of language and literature. Amsterdam: North Holland, 1976.
• Handbook of Discourse Analysis. 4 vols. London: Academic Press, 1985.
• Discourse and communication. Berlin/New York: de Gruyter, 1985.
• Discourse Studies. A multidisciplinary introduction. 2 vols. London: Sage, 1997. Second, one-volume edition, 2011.
• Discourse Studies. 5 vols. Sage Benchmark Series. New Delhi: Sage, 2007.
• Discourse and Discrimination. With Geneva Smitherman-Donaldson. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press, 1988.
• Racism at the Top. Parliamentary Discourses on Ethnic Issues in Six European Countries. With Ruth Wodak. Klagenfurt: Drava Verlag, 2000.
• Communicating Ideologies. Multidisciplinary Perspectives on Language, Discourse and Social Practice. With Martin Pütz and JoAnne Neff-van Aertselaer. Frankfurt/Main: Peter Lang, 2004.
• Racism and Discourse in Latin America. Lanham, Md: Lexington Books, 2009.

Critical Discourse Analysis & Political Discourse Analysis

Critical Discourse Analysis

Since the late 1980s, Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) has become a well-established field in the social sciences. However, in contrast with some branches of linguistics, CDA is not a discrete academic discipline in the traditional sense, with a fixed set of research methods. The manifold roots of CDA lie in a myriad of disciplines including rhetoric, anthropology, philosophy and cognitive science, to name a few. This four-volume set brings together seminal articles on the subject from varied sources, creating an invaluable roadmap for scholars seeking to consolidate their knowledge of CDA, and of its continued development. Sculpted and edited by a leading voice in the field, this work covers the interdisciplinary roots, the most important approaches and methodologies of CDA, as well as applications in other disciplines in an updated and comprehensive way.

Political Discourse Analysis

We have seen that political discourse analysis first of all should be able to define its proper object of study: What exactly is 'political discourse'? The easiest, and not altogether misguided, answer is that political discourse is identified by its actors or authors, viz., politicians. Indeed, the vast bulk of studies of political discourse is about the text and talk of professional politicians or political institutions, such as presidenta and prime ministers and other members of government, parliament or political parties, both at the local, national and
international levels.

Discourse Approaches to Politics, Society and Culture

contributions that investigate political, social and cultural processes from a linguistic/discourse-analytic point of view. The aim is to publish monographs and edited volumes which combine language-based approaches with disciplines concerned essentially with human interaction — disciplines such as political science, international relations, social psychology, social anthropology, sociology, economics, and gender studies.

Discourse Analysis

Definition of Discourse Analysis

      Duscourse is teh study of the ways in witch langusage is used in text and context

A. Definition of Discourse
·     (Crystal 1992:25) "Discourse: a continuous stretch of (especially spoken) language larger than a sentence, often constituting a coherent unit such as a sermon, argument, joke, or narrative". 

·     Dakowska, being aware of differences between kinds of discourses indicates the unity of communicative intentions as a vital element of each of them. Consequently she suggests using terms ‚text’ and ‚discourse’ almost interchangeably betokening the former refers to the linguistic product, while the latter implies the entire dynamics of the processes (Dakowska 2001:81).

·       According to Cook (1990:7) novels, as well as short conversations or groans might be equally rightfully named discourses.

.     Discourse is written as well as spoken: every utterance assuming the a speaker Foucault, 1972: 80) The specification with the term is that ‘discourse must be used with its social purpose’ this is the main specification of discourse.
 
B. Definition Analysis
·       Discourse analysis does not presuppose a bias towards the study of either spoken or written language. In fact, the monolithic character of the categories of speech and writing has been widely challenged,especially as the gaze of analysts turns to multi-media texts and practices on the Internet.
      Stef Slembrouck (DA web page)

·       Analysis means to break something up into parts,pieces, reason, or steps and look how those peces are related  to each other.

      ·      While Nunan (1993), states the definition of discourse linguistics as the      study of how stretches of language used in communication assume meaning, purpose and unity for their users: the quality of coherence (an interaction of text with given participants/context).

C.    Definition of  Discourse Analysis
·       Brown and Yule (1983) ) observe that DA examines  “how addressers construct  linguistic messages for addressees and how addressees work on linguistic messages in order to interpret them.”

·       Stubbs (1983:1) describes Discourse Analysis thus: The term discourse analysis is very ambiguous. It refers mainly to the linguistic analysis of naturally occurring connected speech or written discourse. Roughly speaking, it refers to attempts to study the organization of language above the sentence or above the clause, and therefore to study larger linguistic units, such as conversational exchanges or written texts. It follows that discourse analysis is also concerned with language use in social contexts, and in particular with interaction or dialogue between speakers.
·       Discourse analysis does not presuppose a bias towards the study of either spoken or written language. In fact, the monolithic character of the categories of speech and writing has been widely challenged,especially as the gaze of analysts turns to multi-media texts and practices on the Internet. Stef Slembrouck (DA web page)

·       Discourse analysis is sometimes defined as the analysis of language 'beyond the sentence'. This contrasts with types of analysis more typical of modern linguistics, which are chiefly concerned with the study of grammar: the study of smaller bits of language, such as sounds (phonetics and phonology), parts of words (morphology), meaning (semantics), and the order of words in sentences (syntax). Discourse analysts study larger chunks of as they flow together.
      Deborah Tannen (From Linguistic Society of America web

·       While Nunan (1993), states the definition of discourse linguistics as the study of how stretches of language used in communication assume meaning, purpose and unity for their users: the quality of coherence (an interaction of text with given participants/context).

     So, we can conclude that Discourse Analysis is the study language and the deeper meaning in ways language is used. People use various ways of communication not only by verbal conversations but also letters, e-mail, and ev

Semantic

Idiom

An idiom is a word or phrase which means something different from its literal meaning. Idioms are common phrases or terms whose meaning is not real, but can be understood by their popular use.

Because idioms can mean something different from what the words mean it is difficult for someone not very good at speaking the language to use them properly. Some idioms are only used by some groups of people or at certain times. The idiom shape up or ship out, which is like saying improve your behavior or leave if you don't, might be said by an employer or supervisor to an employee, but not to other people.

Idioms are not the same thing as slang. Idioms are made of normal words that have a special meaning known by almost everyone. Slang is usually special words that are known only by a particular group of people.

To learn a language a person needs to learn the words in that language, and how and when to use them. But people also need to learn idioms separately because certain words together or at certain times can have different meanings. In order to understand an idiom, one sometimes needs to know the culture the idiom comes from.

The Example of Idioms: 

1. Break a leg (A way to wish someone good luck)
2. To live it up (To enjoy life, to live widely)
3. To kick the bucket (To die)
4. Shape up or ship out (Used to tell someone that they should leave if they don't improve their behavior or performance)

POLYSEMY

POLYSEMY

Polysemy is the association of one word with two or more distinct meanings.

A polyseme is a word or phrase with multiple meanings. 

Adjective: polysemous or polysemic.

In contrast, a one-to-one match between a word and a meaning is called monosemy. 

Homonymy is the relation between words with identical forms but different meanings that is, the condition of being homonyms. A stock example is the word bank as it appears in "river bank" and "savings bank." 

Homonymy and polysemy both involve one lexical form that is associated with multiple senses and as such both are possible sources of lexical ambiguity. But while homonyms are distinct lexemes that happen to share the same form, in polysemy a single lexeme is associated with multiple senses. The distinction between homonymy and polysemy is usually made on the basis of the relatedness of the senses: polysemy involves related senses, whereas the senses associated with homonymous lexemes are not related.

Examples of polysemy:

Man

1. The human species (i.e., man vs. animal).

2. Males of the human species ( i.e., man vs. woman).

3. Adult males of the human species (i.e., man vs. woman).

This example shows the specific polysemy where the same word is used at different levels of a taxonomy. Example 1 contains 2, and 2 contains 3.

Synecdoche & Metonymy

Synecdoche

Definition of Synecdoche

Synecdoche is a figure of speech in which a word or phrase that refers to a part of something is substituted to stand in for the whole, or vice versa. For example, the phrase “all hands on deck” is a demand for all of the crew to help, yet the word “hands” just a part of the crew stands in for the whole crew.

Synecdoche is a subset of metonymy. We explore the similarities and differences between the two in more detail below. Synecdoche and metonymy are also considered forms of metaphor in that all three literary devices involve a substitution of one term for another that requires a conceptual link. Synecdoche can sometimes be described as a form of personification in the cases when it substitutes a human element for a non-human organization, such as referring to a weapon falling into “the wrong hands.” In this case, the human element of “hands” stands in for an opposing group.

The word synecdoche comes from the Ancient Greek word synekdoche, which means “simultaneous understanding.”

Common Examples of Synecdoche

There are many common expressions that are examples of synecdoche. Here is a list of some of these examples:

• Boots on the ground : refers to soldiers
• New wheels : refers to a new car
• Ask for her hand : refers to asking a woman to marry
• Suits : can refer to businesspeople
• Plastic : can refer to credit cards
• The White House : can refer to statements made by individuals within the United States government

Significance of Synecdoche in Literature

Some literary theorists have posited that synecdoche is not merely ornamental, but instead one of the chief ways to describe and discover truths via literature. Along with metonymy, metaphor, and irony, synecdoche displays and creates new connections in the way that humans understand concepts. Whether or not authors use synecdoche intentionally, any connection between previously unassociated concepts creates new cognitive links. By exploring the usage of synecdoche in literature, we are able to better understand the human mind.

Metonymy Definition

It is a figure of speech that replaces the name of a thing with the name of something else with which it is closely associated. We can come across examples of metonymy both from literature and in everyday life. 

Examples of Metonymy in Everyday Life

We use metonymy frequently in our everyday life. For a better understanding, let us observe a few metonymy examples:

• England decides to keep check on immigration. (England refers to the government.)
• The pen is mightier than the sword. (Pen refers to written words and sword to military force.)
• The Oval Office was busy in work. (“The Oval Office” is a metonymy as it stands for people at work in the office.)
• Let me give you a hand. (Hand means help.)

Function of Metonymy

Generally, metonymy is used in developing literary symbolism i.e. it gives more profound meanings to otherwise common ideas and objects. By using metonymy, texts exhibit deeper or hidden meanings and thus drawing readers’ attention.  In addition, the use of metonymy helps achieve conciseness. For instance, “Rifles were guarding the gate” is more concise than “The guards with rifles in their hands were guarding the gate.”

Furthermore, metonymy, like other literary devices, is employed to add a poetic color to words to make them come to life. The simple ordinary things are described in a creative way to insert this “life” factor to the literary works.

Difference Between Synecdoche and Metonymy

The definition of synecdoche requires the substituted term to be either a part of the whole or a whole standing in for a part. Metonymy, on the other hand, can refer to the substitution of a term that is connected in any way to the original concept. For example, using “the crown” to refer to a member of royalty is metonymy because the concept of the crown is related to royalty. However, a crown is neither part of the royal person, nor is the royal person part of the crown.

Collocation

Defenition of Collocation
Collocations is a familiar grouping of words, especially words that habitually appear together and thereby convey meaning by association. Collocational range refers to the set of items that typically accompany a word. The size of a collocational range is partially determined by a word’s level of specificity and number of meanings.

Example of Collocation :
·         Rizal go home with his best friend every day (best)
·         Rizal eats with his good friends ( good, close ).

Synonim, Antonym, Hyponim

1. Synonym is the state or phenomenon in which the words that sound different, but have the same or idential meaning, as another word or pharase.

EXAMPLES :   Small                           -      Little
                           Big                              -       Large
                           Mother and Father   -       Parents

2. Antonym is the state or phenomenon in which the words have the sense relation which involve the opposite of meaning. Palmer classifies three  of antonym  can be devided into several types :
a.      Graclable antonymy is the meaning of each word is relative, it also can be put in a graded scale which is not fixed.
Examples :
Big – small
Good -  bad
Fast – slow
Young – old

3.Hyponym is a term to refer to a set or term or word. The higher or upper term or word is called a super ordinate, and the lower term is called a hyponym. Some examples of hyponym are :
a.      Vegetable = carrots – cabbages – spinach – lettuce

Simile

A simile is a figure of speech that says that one thing is like another different thing. We can use similes to make descriptions more emphatic or vivid.
We often use the words as...as and like with similes.
Common patterns for similes, with example sentences, are:
something [is*] AS adjective AS something
His skin was as cold as ice.
It felt as hard as rock.
She looked as gentle as a lamb.
something [is*] LIKE something
My love is like a red, red rose.
These cookies taste like garbage.
He had a temper (that was) like a volcano.
something [does**] LIKE something
He eats like a pig.
He smokes like a chimney.
They fought like cats and dogs.

FINAL TEST ESP

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Background

ESP(English Specific Purpose) is centered on the language appropriate to the activities of a given discipline. ESP according to Hutchinson and Waters (1987:19), ESP is an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learners reason for learning. In this connection, Dudley Evans (1998) explains that ESP may not always focus on the language for one specific discipline or  occupation, such as English for Computer science.

One of the fundamental questions for language teaching is what language is to be taught. In order to specify what language will be taught, items are typically listed and referred to as the syllabus. Graves (1996) discusses the language curriculum and syllabus. She describes the curriculum as a broad statement of the philosophy, purposes, design, and implementation of the entire language teaching program and th syllabus as a specification and ordering of content of a course.The education system in Indonesia, stipulates that English is the CourseGeneral (MKU), which is mandatory for students, so any subject captured everything will continue to learn English. A sticking question, whether the material taught English language is always the same when students learn in different departments? For example if English For Computer Science: An Analysis of the English Language Requirement On Informatics Engineering Student Pro Business Journal Vol. 6 No.1 February 2013 21.

Economics student of English study material is the same as the students of Information Engineering, Literature and others. Of course the answer is different, because the material and terms used in Economics and Informatics Engineering was different. The material is as it is known as ESP or English for Specific Purpose.Para English teacher or lecturer certainly very aware of the matter ESP. In this section the authors limit the discussion to the material ESP English for Computer Science. There are some difficulties experienced when lecturers for teaching ESP (English for Computer Science) to students, among others;

a). Most textbooks English for Computer Science published abroad, making it difficult to find a textbook local or domestic

b). Since most textbooks were from abroad, the level of difficulty (level of Difficulties)

Less material in accordance with the level of ability and needsstudents in Indonesia. Lecturers as curriculum developers should certainly play a role in the selection and development of teaching materials so that students are able to achieve the expected competencies

CHAPTER II

Summary Modul of Engelish Study Forest Faculity of Lancang Kuning University

In the beginning  the modul writed about introduction and writted about forest in english , telling about forest in english language. The modul writed about word formation , word formation is the word + ending .

Ending –ment, -ion, -ure is ending the noun,

Ex:         Agree + ment = Agreement

            Oppose + ion = Opposition

            Fail + ure = Failure

Ending –ic, -al, -ful is ending the adjective

Ex:       Democrat + ic = Democratic

            Nature + al = Natural

            Beauty + ful = Beautiful

Ending –ize is ending verb

Ex:       Stable + ize = Stabilize

Paralel Structure

            Is to connect the word or phrase that have same grammatical functions in a sentence, the conjunction use in this pattern are and,but,or,nor / no or.

Example :

Those shoes are old but confortable

Steve, Joe, and  alif are coming to dinner

Country, Language, Nationality

Using ending In – an , ese, ish, i to Adjective ending

Ex:

            Pakistan + i = Pakistani

            Sweden + ish = swedish

            Japan + ese = Japanese

            India + an = indian

Tenses

-Simple past tense

-Simple present tense

-Past continues tense

-Future tense

-present perfect

-Past perfect

Degree of comparison

1. positive

2.comparative

3. superlative

Comparative  and superlative forms of adjectives

1.One- syllable adjective

2.two- syllable adjective

3.Adjective with three or more syllable

Too, So, Either, Neither

have same meaning but different usage.

CHAPTER III

ANALYSIS

                The modul that one of best modul but must have changed in some sector , in firstly the lecture must be increase story long and too spesific . and then all of the english modul of forest faculity of lancang kuning  university too general and not spesific syncron with the major. must to gift the example connected with forest major and give the stories about  forest and science.

            like a novel , we interesting wih the novel with same like our real story, that because we have chemistry to read and taste. because it learning english must too have chemistry with our life, our hobbies. Like it our easy to understand english , and like it the forest faculity student understan english fully.

Metaphor

Metaphor Definition
Metaphor is a figure of speech which makes an implicit, implied or hidden comparison between two things that are unrelated but share some common characteristics. In other words, a resemblance of two contradictory or different objects is made based on a single or some common characteristics.

In simple English, when you portray a person, place, thing, or an action as being something else, even though it is not actually that “something else,” you are speaking metaphorically. “He is the black sheep of the family” is a metaphor because he is not a sheep and is not even black. However, we can use this comparison to describe an association of a black sheep with that person. A black sheep is an unusual animal and typically stays away from the herd, and the person you are describing shares similar characteristics.

Furthermore, a metaphor develops a comparison which is different from a simile i.e. we do not use “like” or “as” to develop a comparison in a metaphor. It actually makes an implicit or hidden comparison and not an explicit one.
Common Speech Examples of Metaphors

Most of us think of a metaphor as a device used in songs or poems only, and that it has nothing to do with our everyday life. In fact, all of us in our routine life speak, write and think in metaphors. We cannot avoid them. Metaphors are sometimes constructed through our common language. They are called conventional metaphors. Calling a person a “night owl” or an “early bird” or saying “life is a journey” are common conventional metaphor examples commonly heard and understood by most of us. Below are some more conventional metaphors we often hear in our daily life:

My brother was boiling mad. (This implies he was too angry.)
The assignment was a breeze. (This implies that the assignment was not difficult.)
It is going to be clear skies from now on. (This implies that clear skies are not a threat and life is going to be without hardships)
The skies of his future began to darken. (Darkness is a threat; therefore, this implies that the coming times are going to be hard for him.)
Her voice is music to his ears. (This implies that her voice makes him feel happy)

Literary Metaphor Examples

Metaphors are used in all type of literature but not often to the degree they are used in poetry because poems are meant to communicate complex images and feelings to the readers and metaphors often state the comparisons most emotively. Here are some examples of metaphor from famous poems.

Example #1

    “She is all states, and all princes, I.”

John Donne, a metaphysical poet, was well-known for his abundant use of metaphors throughout his poetical works. In his well-known work “The Sun Rising,” the speaker scolds the sun for waking him and his beloved. Among the most evocative metaphors in literature, he explains “she is all states, and all princes, I.” This line demonstrates the speaker’s belief that he and his beloved are richer than all states, kingdoms, and rulers in the entire world because of the love that they share.

Ambiguity

Ambiguity Definition
Ambiguity or fallacy of ambiguity is a word, phrase, or statement which contains more than one meaning.

Ambiguous words or statements lead to vagueness and confusion, and shape the basis for instances of unintentional humor. For instance, it is ambiguous to say “I rode a black horse in red pajamas,” because it may lead us to think the horse was wearing red pajamas. The sentence becomes clear when it is restructured “Wearing red pajamas, I rode a black horse.”

Similarly, same words with different meanings can cause ambiguity e.g. “John took off his trousers by the bank.” It is funny if we confuse one meaning of “bank” which is a building, to another meaning, being “an edge of a river”. Context usually resolves any ambiguity in such cases.

Examples of Ambiguity in Literature
Although ambiguity is considered a flaw in writing, many writers use this technique to allow readers to understand their works in a variety of ways, giving them depth and complexity. Let us analyze some ambiguity examples in literature.

Example #1
Read the following excerpt from “The Catcher in the Rye” by J. D. Salinger:

“I ran all the way to the main gate, and then I waited a second till I got my breath. I have no wind, if you want to know the truth. I’m quite a heavy smoker, for one thing—that is, I used to be. They made me cut it out. Another thing, I grew six and a half inches last year. That’s also how I practically got t.b. and came out here for all these goddam checkups and stuff. I’m pretty healthy though.”

The words “they” and “here” used by the speaker are ambiguous. But the readers are allowed to presume from the context that “they” might be the professionals helping out Holden and “here” might be a rehabilitation center.

Function of Ambiguity
Ambiguity in literature serves the purpose of lending a deeper meaning to a literary work. By introducing ambiguity in their works, writers give liberty to the readers to use their imagination to explore meanings. This active participation of the readers involves them in the prose or poetry they read.

Connotation vs Denotation vs Implication

connotation is not a word that implies actual or usually referred to as the figurative meaning . the goal is to provide a comparison that what is more interesting and clear . for example : because bighead . moyes can't have friends ( bighead : arrogant )

denotation is a word that has true meaning which the word in the dictionary . for example : halim planting Flower in his backyard.

An implication is something slightly different. If I imply something, I am saying something specific to somebody, without actually using that sentence (this might be an accident. We might not want the listener to have this idea). Usually, an implication is a proposition - something that can be expressed as a sentence.

Euphemism definition

The term euphemism refers to polite, indirect expressions which replace words and phrases considered harsh and impolite or which suggest something unpleasant.

Euphemism is an idiomatic expression which loses its literal meanings and refers to something else in order to hide its unpleasantness. For example, “kick the bucket” is a euphemism that describes the death of a person. In addition, many organizations use the term “downsizing” for the distressing act of “firing” its employees.

Euphemism depends largely on the social context of the speakers and writers where they feel the need to replace certain words which may prove embarrassing for particular listeners or readers in a particular situation.

Euphemism is frequently used in everyday life. Let us look at some common euphemism examples:

You are becoming a little thin on top (bald).
Our teacher is in the family way (pregnant).
He is always tired and emotional (drunk).
We do not hire mentally challenged (stupid) people.
He is a special child (disabled or retarded).

Symbol and reference

Semantics of Symbol
Helen V. Shelestiuk
General
The present paper is the summary of my views on imaginative symbols in the aspects of their semantic structure and conceptual transpositions in them. As was defined in one of my earlier works, symbol is a multi-notion conventional sign which represents, apart from its inherent and immediate designatum, an essentially different, usually more abstract designatum, connected with the former by a logical link. (Shelestiuk 1997: 125) In semantic terms, in symbols we deal with a hierarchy of meanings, where the direct meaning constitutes the first layer of sense and serves as a basis for the indirect (secondary) meaning - the second layer of sense, both of them united under the same designator (a name, a visual image, a significant object or person, etc.)
In (Shelestiuk 1997) I discussed the indispensable characteristics of symbols, which are, in fact, the complex structure of a symbol and the equally important status of meanings in it. Other important, if not indispensable, features of symbols are: imaginativeness; motivation; immanent polysemy; archetypal nature; integration into the structure of secondary semiotic systems and universality in various cultures. I will not dwell here on each of these features, but regard some of them as I outline the essentials of the theory of symbols.
There may be more than one secondary concept associated with the immediate designatum in symbol. This feature is termed immanent polysemy in (Shelestiuk 1997); Philip Wheelwright (1968: 220) seems to mean the same when he speaks of ambiguity and vagueness of symbols. Immanent polysemy of a symbol means its innumerable implications: a cluster of conceptually disparate meanings related to a symbol (for example, fire – hearth and home; masculine principle; passion; the sun; purification); a circle of equonymous meanings (fire – purification – funeral pyre, purgatory, Gehenna); or a sense perspective - a chain of meanings, where, as the thought moves away from the direct meaning, links of abstract metaphors / metonymies may be followed by links of their concrete realization in other domains (fire - vigor - masculine principle - fertilization; fire – passion - heart; fire - the sun – God - spirit).
Among symbols I specify language and speech symbols. Language symbols are fixed in people’s mind as stable associative complexes, existing in the lexical meaning of a word as ‘a symbolic aura’, i. e. a number of semes of cultural-stereotype and archetypal or mythological character. Cultural-stereotype symbols are contemporary and comprehensible for all the representatives of a culture, with a transparent logical connection between a direct and a secondary meaning, the latter being easily deducible. Archetypal symbols, consistent with K. G. Jung’s archetypes, are symbols based on the most ancient or primary ideas of the ambient world. In archetypes the connection between the direct and secondary meaning is often darkened.
Examples of cultural stereotypes: e.g. rose – beauty, love; wall – obstacle, restriction of freedom, estrangement; mountain – spiritual elevation, also courage associated with overcoming difficulties; way – movement in time, progress, course of life. Examples of archetypes: the sky – father; the earth – mother; egg - primordial embryo, out of which the world developed; snake - god of the underground world, of the dead; bird – mediator between the earth and the heaven, this world and the other world; tree (of life), mountain (of life) – the world itself.

Structural and Dynamic Features of Symbol
As a specific sign symbol implies the combination of structural-semantic and dynamic (nominative) features, the latter referring to the process of symbolization.
Structurally, symbol is a multi-notional complex sign. There is a minimum of two equally important kernels in it. The direct meaning is the image of a symbol. It denotes a concrete notion, which is nevertheless generalized to provide a basis for further abstractions. The figurative meaning is the idea of a symbol. It is different from the direct meaning in quality and may be archetypal, cultural-stereotype or individual and subjective.
The dynamic (nominative) aspect in a symbol – symbolization - may be defined as semantic transposition, which implies the transfer from a sign in praesentia to a sign in absentia. In other words, the name of an object is transposed onto an absent sign denoting a qualitatively different notion. This transposition is due to the fact that the immediate designatum itself induces the secondary designatum on the basis of apparent or conventional associations between notions. In original symbols, however, the secondary designatum is implied by the immediate designatum  as seen through the prism of the context, whereby some features of the immediate designatum are ascribed to the secondary designatum.
From the perspective of symbolization as a process I specify metaphor and metonymy as the fundamental mechanisms of transposition. If symbol is viewed as a static sign, metonymy and metaphor reveal themselves as the fundamental types of logical connections between meanings by their obligate or potential characteristics. Metaphor suggests similarity of meanings. Metonymy, as I broadly see it, embraces all types of logical connections except similarity. It includes, among others, synecdoche and hypo-hyperonymic transposition. Metaphor and metonymy form up peculiar associative rows of meanings, which possess certain logic, so the resultant symbols are semantically and conceptually consistent.
Metaphoric and metonymic connections in symbols will be discussed at length in the parts of this paper where the distinction is drawn between symbols and tropes and where the classification of symbols is presented. Below I will dwell on some other important types of interaction between meanings or between form and meanings in symbol, or mechanisms of symbolization for that matter.
Irrational Symbols Based on Synaesthesia and Primitive Syncretism of Meanings, on Connections between Form and Meaning and on Accidental Coincidence of Forms of Words

Some symbols have no logical links between their designata. They may result from synaesthesia, from primitive syncretism of notions, from connections between form and meaning (sound symbolism) and from erroneous association of notions owing to accidental coincidence of forms of words (paronymous, homonymous or polysemous symbols).
Synaesthesia is association of primary perceptions of different modalities (hearing, sight, sense of touch, sense of smell and sense of taste) on the basis of their intensity, emotional coloring and evaluation. In terms of traditional linguistics synaesthesia is transposition of a name of a characteristic to another characteristic on the basis of similar connotations - intensity, emotional coloring and evaluation (e.g. mild cheese, mild light, mild voice; loud voice, loud color; rough food, rough country, rough sound; a rotten egg, apple, rotten weather, he is a rotten driver, to feel rotten etc.). Besides, there often occurs synaesthesic transposition of physical perceptions to mental and emotional phenomena (loose hair, loose behavior; strong man, strong criticism; an open house, open contempt, an open man; to seize a hand, to seize an idea, to seize power).
In symbols synaesthesia appears as a transposition of a name of an object onto a concept on the basis of similarity or contiguity of connotations of the immediate and secondary designata. A few examples of synaesthesic symbols: ‘rose – love, happiness’; ‘day – life, joy, God’; ‘night – mystery, death, danger, evil’. Synaesthesia is seldom the only link between meanings in symbols, more often, it co-occurs with other connections.
Synaesthesia may be metaphoric, based on similarity of connotations of notions, which do not directly imply each other, e.g. in the symbols ‘the rose-garden – love; paradise’ (similarity of evaluation), ‘the rising lotos – growth of spirit’ (similarity of evaluation) from ‘Burnt Norton’ by T. S. Eliot, ‘night – death’ (similarity of emotion) from ‘Ode to the Confederate Dead’ by Allen Tate and ‘Do Not Go Gentle Into That Good Night’ by Dylan Thomas.

My motivation

Assalamualaikum para bloggers yang ane hormati . kembali lagi pada postingan ane yang berikutnya. moga moga aja yang baca dapat berkah yah:DamiiiinO:).

berawal dari tugas yang di kasih sama Mr. Budi, ane mulai nih ngepost di blog. temanya sih masih sama . "My Self" . di postingan ini ane mau bagi cerita dikit . cerita penting yang mungkin menurut readers alay tapi berharga banget buat ane:D

ane kenal sama satu sosok wanita hebat, kuat , bersahabat dan sangat pengertian . wanita itu adalah "Mama" . ane yakin para readers sayang mama kan? sama ane sayang banget malah . ceritanya berawal dari tingkah laku ane yang bisa di bilang gak karuan dan gak nentu arah. ane sempat terjebak dulu pada dunia kelam yang gak ada hasilnya . itulah yang buat ane berhenti kuliah sementara .

pada akhirnya ane mutusin buat balik ke kampung ane , tinggal sama orang tua . tanpa ada kerjaan jelas dan tujuan hidup . hampir setahun ane nganggur tanpa ada kegiatan rutin dan pasti . kerja enggak nganggur juga kagak -____- sampai suatu hari Mama ngajakin ane cerita dan ngasih penawaran yang sulit buat dipilih .

mama kasih ane pilihan . mau kuliah lagi atau gak sama sekali . waktunya ketika itu udah mepet buat pendaftaran . dan ane masih aja galau dan pikiran ngelantur gak jelas . sampai akhirnya mama bilang " hidup itu bukan diam di tempat . berani mencoba . gagal itu biasa . tapi jangan berhenti " akhitnya ane pilih kuliah lagi dan coba jadi lebih baik lagi . ane selalu ingat kata kata itu . kata kata yang buat ane punya tujuan lagi . kesannya ane kayak anak mami yah wkwkwk:D

alhmdulillah sampe tulisan ini ane post . semangat ane buat kuliah gak berkurang . kalaupun kadang ane ngerasa malas . ane ingat mama dan pesannya sama ane itu . ane udah usaha juga buat janji gak bakal jatuh kelubang yang sama . pada umumnya manusia punya hidup yang sama . tapi pola pikir yang buat kita beda hehe .

ane rasa sekian dulu postingan ane kali ini . tinggalin kritik dan saran ya bloggers . mudah mudahan bermanfaat dan jadi bahan motivasi juga . ane tutup dulu yah . wassalam.....

Studi Banding UNISEL

Sekarang saya merupakan seorang mahasiswa pendidikan bahasa inggris di Universitas Lancang Kuning kota Pekanbaru untuk menyelesaikan Program S1. Sebelumnya saya pernah mencoba berkuliah di Universitas islam Riau (UIR) sebagai mahasiswa pendidikan olahraga . Pengalaman yang menarik untuk saya adalah ketika saya merasakan pertama kali keluar negri untuk melaksanakan program wajib Studi Banding bersama dosen dan rekan-rekan saya di tempat saya berkuliah.

Bearawal dari rasa penasaran untuk mengunjungi negara tetangga yang sudah sejak lama saya impikan , saya tidak menyianyiakan kesempatan untuk pergi melihat-lihat keindahan Kuala Lumpur,
selain untuk berjalan jalan saya juga melihat perbandingan perkembangan zaman dan pendidikan disana dengan di Indonesia . Rasa kagum dan takjub saya rasakan karna negara tetangga kita ini sudah jauh lebih maju di bandingkan Indonesia . kami mengunjungi Universitas Selangor untuk mengetahui proses dan cara belajar di sana . kami juga mendapatkan pengalaman dan tujuan hidup serta fungsi bahas inggris untuk menghadapi Masyarakat Ekonomi Asean(MEA) . disana sarana dan prasana sangat mendukung untuk menimba ilmu pengetahuan dengan seiringnya perkembangan zaman .

Selain itu saya beserta rombongan juga mengunjungi tempat tempat wisata seperti Batu Cave, Twin Towers , Masjid Kebangsaan , Istana Kenegaraan , Genting Highland , dan masih banyak lagi . disana semua struktur dan infrastruktur bisa dikatakan rapi dan mepunyai perbedaan yang signifikan  dengan daerah asal saya , saya ingin kembali kesana untuk tahu lebih banyak lagi kemajuan dan aneka kenyamanan yang tersedia . saya juga sangat mengingat tiga haari yang menakjubkan selama belajr dan berjalan jalan di Negara Malaysia :)

About

Nama lengkap saya Luluh Nuansa Sepditya.Lahir di Pekanbaru 27 september 1994 . saya tinggal dijalan diponegoro no.22 kelurahan Suka Mulia-kecamatan Sail Pekanbaru-Riau.